I was researching on the web and found as I often do conflicting opinions on whether or not all tourmalines that contain copper can be classified as a Paraiba type or just cuprian tourmaline.
So I was hoping someone might be able to clarify
Does it have to have Manganese as well to be Paraiba?
Any advice is appreciated
D.L.
Tourmaline is a āgarbage pailā of elementsā¦ so it is difficult to classify only on the basis of chemical composition. It is the ācolorā that is important in Paraiba as well as it compositionā¦ but paraiba is likely an idiochromatic mineral ā¦ such that it is the copper in the tourmaline that is the major coloring agent is in high enough concentrations that Cu should be part of its formula. If Mn is present it would be considered āallochemicalā as in more of trace element coloration. The reports I have read seem to indicate that Mn may or may not be presentā¦ Thus, I would guess that it is not essential to causing the color that sets paraiba apart from the other tourmalines
The color of Paraiba tourmaline is unmistakable. Paraiba tourmaline came first from the region of the same name in Brazil. When similar colored tourmaline was discovered in Africa it was first called Paraiba, but some folks called foul, since it wasnāt from Paraiba. AFAIK, it is now considered correct to call Paraiba type colored tourmaline from other places copper bearing tourmaline, since that is what creates the color. Only tourmaline from Paraiba can properly bear that name. This gives a price premium to tourmaline that is actually from Paraiba in Brazil. Copper bearing tourmaline with a Paraiba type color is called copper bearing tourmaline. While it is still sold at a premium over other tourmaline, tourmaline with a documented Paraiba provenance commands the highest price. I myself am a little edgy about a price based solely on provenance, but that is how it is with Paraiba, with Kashmir sapphire and some other stones.
Very interesting. I know of no secure, reliable way to determine provenance when the color is correct and it is being sold as Paraiba tourmaline. There is way too much dishonesty in the gem world for Provenance to be the deciding factor in the name of a gemā¦ so if the color of your tourmaline is the āunmistakableā color mentioned by royjohn, then you should be able to call it āParaibaā. The beauty of a gem is in its ālookā and not based upon its locality of origin.
When Nigeria and Mozambique copper bearing tourmalines came on the market, laboratories had to make certain compromises based on pressure from the industry. Thus many years back in deliberations, the LMHC (laboratory manual harmonization codes) group of labs (GIA, SSEF, Gubelin, ICA, and others) decided it was okay to put āParaibaā on their reports to include all these other country sources. So you can only imagine that in the general market it is a free for all.
Some labs like AGL or SGL will not directly state Paraiba as the variety (unless it is from Brazil), and will only mention in their lab comments section regarding the other sources that, āthese copper bearing tourmalines may be referred to as paraiba-type in the tradeā. Note the lower case and hyphen āparaiba-typeā.
It is easy enough for an experienced, advanced laboratory to determine the country of origin separating the three different sources. This is based on chemical ratios. However, it does take sophisticated equipment and background knowledge.
D.L., your question about the manganese is good. Yes, all the paraiba type tourmalines need to have manganese in order for the copper to activate those neon colors. This typically happens in the heating process.
Thank you for all the advice, it is very helpful
Ive heard people state its a paraiba but also state no presence of copper.
Are all sparkling white wines considered āChampagneā even if itās written on the label? A chinese ārolexā is a ROLEX? Imho only brasilian ParaĆbas deserve the name. Others can eventually be called āparaiba typeā for marketing purposes.
I have some tourmalines coming from SĆ£o JosĆ© da Batalha/ParaĆba/ Brasil with a great color. They are not copper bearing. I would not dare to call them āParaĆbaā! On the certificate : Origin: SĆ£o JosĆ© da Batalha/ParaĆba/ Brasil
By Federico Pezzotta, Brendan M. Laurs
With their multitude of colors, gem tourmalines are among the most popular colored gemstones. Spectacular color-zoned tourmalines are valued as gems and crystal specimens, and some complexly zoned crystals contain nearly the entire spectrum of color variation found in the mineral world. The top-quality āneonā blue-to-green, copper-bearing tourmaline, the ParaĆba-type, is one of the highest-priced colored gemstones, with values comparable to those of some diamonds. The wide variety and intensity of colors are related primarily to color-producing ions in the structure and to exposure to natural radiation. Gem tourmalines that form in magmatic, pegmatitic environments are most commonly elbaite and ļ¬ uorliddicoatite species, and the rarer gem tourmalines that develop in metamorphic rocks are generally draviteāuvite species.
1811-5209/11/0007-0333$2.50 DOI: 10.2113/gselements.7.5.333
KEYWORDS: Tourmaline, gemstone, ParaĆba-type, chromophores, gem deposits.
Figure 1 Broad spectral color range displayed by tourmaline. These cut stones weigh 3.71 to 16.21 ct. The round green stone at the top center is about 15 mm in diameter. FROM THE GIA COLLECTION; PHOTO BY ROBERT WELDON, REPRINTED WITH PERMISSION
Perhaps more than any other gemstone, tourmaline is renowned for its spectrum of colors, even within individual crystals (FIG. 1). In addition, tourmaline has the appropriate combination of beauty, durability, and rarity to make ļ¬ ne gemstones. Its moderate refractive index (~1.61ā1.67; see also Hawthorne and Dirlam 2011 this issue) gives signiļ¬ cant return of light, and its chemical complexity produces a wide range of appealing colors. Its relatively high hardness (7Ā½ on the Mohs scale) makes it less likely to be scratched, and its lack of cleavage makes it unlikely to fracture during wear. Its growth as highly transparent material, mostly free of internal ļ¬ aws, provides the gemquality crystals required for cutting faceted stones (FIG. 1). These attributes make tourmaline well suited for fashioning, and it is available in sufļ¬ cient quantities to support a commercial market. Gemmy crystals of tourmaline with sharp, undamaged morphology and rich colors are collected by mineral connoisseurs (FIG. 2), and cut stones are mounted into jewelry (FIG. 3). Clearly, tourmaline is one of the most important gem materials on the market today.
Figure 2 Specimen of polychrome elbaite crystals (28 cm tall), characteristic of gem tourmaline found in Pederneira, Minas Gerais, Brazil. SPECIMEN FROM DANIEL TRINCHILLO; PHOTO BY JAMES ELLIOTT
Tourmaline gemstones have a distinguished and colorful history. At the beginning of the 18th century, Amsterdam lapidaries noticed that in mixed parcels of gem rough from Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), there were some gems characterized by relatively low density (~3.07 g/cm3), and they were given the name turamalin. These were thought to be a new type of gem, having gone unrecognized for some time, and by 1717 they were referred to as pierre de Ceylon (King 2002). Nevertheless, the name turamalin was retained, and in the second half of the 18th century the spelling changed to tourmalin. In 1771 the term tourmaline garnet was coined, probably referring to rubellite (the pink to red gem variety of tourmaline). Until the early 18th century there were only small amounts of Ceylonese gem tourmaline on the market. In the late 18th century the discovery of rubellite deposits near Nerchinsk, Siberia, and the ļ¬ nds of Brazilian tourmalines, referred to as smaragdus brasilicus, produced signiļ¬ cant quantities of gem tourmaline (King 2002).
Figure 3 Pendant consisting of two Mozambique copperbearing tourmalines (10.95 ct pink and 6.95 ct yellow) set in 18 k gold with diamonds. FROM THE BUZZ GRAY AND BERNADINE JOHNSON COLLECTION; PHOTO BY ROBERT WELDON
Long before it was recognized as a new gem, some magniļ¬ cent red tourmaline gemstones had been mounted as jewels for Europeās royalty. The great Czech crown of Saint Wenceslas, fashioned between 1346 and 1387, features a large, bright red ārubyā (39.5 Ć 36.5 Ć 14 mm) that is actually tourmaline (HyrÅ”l and Neumanova 1999). The tourmaline in the Wenceslas crown is the oldest-known tourmaline gemstone, predating the coining of the word tourmaline by several hundred years. In 1925, Russian mineralogist Alexander Fersman identiļ¬ ed a vivid pink, chickenās eggāsized gem from the Kremlinās Treasure Room as a Burmese tourmaline. It was traced to the reign of Emperor Rudolph II (1575ā1612), and until Fersmanās work it was considered an oriental ruby (Glas 2002). At the turn of the last century, demand for tourmaline soared as it was popularized by one of its greatest enthusiasts, the Dowager Empress Tzāu Hsi, who ruled China from 1860 to 1908. Her passion for carved pink tourmaline consequently led to its desirability among the Chinese royalty (e.g. Fisher 2008).
The extensive range of colors in gem tourmaline, from colorless, through red, pink, yellow, orange, green, blue, and violet, to brown and black, generally reļ¬ ects interactions at a structural level. Several mechanisms can cause color in tourmaline, the most common ones being crystalļ¬ eld transitions (CFT), intervalence charge transfer interactions (IVCT), and color centers. The transition elements Fe2+, Fe3+, Mn2+, Mn3+, Ti4+, Cu2+, and V3+ act as important color-causing agents, or chromophores, in tourmaline. Most transition element chromophores occupy the Y and Z edge-sharing octahedral sites (Hawthorne and Dirlam 2011), and they inļ¬ uence color and color intensity through both CFT and IVCT (TABLE 1). Trivalent chromium is also a strong chromophore in many tourmalines, but gem chromian tourmalines are relatively rare.
Naturally occurring colors can be produced or enhanced by natural irradiation (i.e. through the ionizing radiation of decaying isotopes such as 40K , 238U, and 232Th) from minerals proximal to the tourmaline. For example, when tourmaline is associated with potassium feldspar or a U/Th-bearing accessory mineral (such as monazite or zircon), its color can be modiļ¬ ed and intensiļ¬ ed by radiation. In addition, irradiation can alter the color by creating color centers (e.g. Reinitz and Rossman 1988).
To achieve the best color when cutting a tourmaline gemstone, the pronounced dichroism of tourmaline must be taken into account. In general, the Īµ-ray of light traveling parallel to the c axis of the crystal, corresponding to the direction parallel to prism faces, is signiļ¬ cantly absorbed compared to the Ļ-ray. The color of the gem rough typically appears darker and more saturated when observed parallel to the c axis. In dark brown crystals the effect can be so strong that the Īµ-ray is completely absorbed, and in the 19th century mineralogists used thin slabs of such crystals, cut parallel to the c axis, as a light polarizer (Anderson 1980). Dichroism in gem tourmaline is quite variable and may even make it challenging to identify.
Figure 4 Faceted elbaite stones from ParaĆba, Brazil (2.59ā 3.68 ct; the stone on the left is about 6 mm tall). These stones owe their intense, āneonā blue colors to the inļ¬ uence of Cu2+ in the tourmaline structure. In some cases, Cu2+ in combination with other cations modiļ¬ es the resulting colors. Ā© GEMOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICAN. PHOTO BY ROBERT WELDON. REPRINTED BY PERMISSION
Occasionally tourmaline crystals display chatoyancy. This light-scattering effect is caused by the interaction of light with bundles of parallel, microscopic, needle-like inclusions aligned along the c axis. Cabochons (rounded, convex, polished stones) are fashioned from these crystals to showcase their ācatās-eyeā appearance. The intensity of this phenomenon depends on the size and density of the tubes that cause this effect (Graziani et al. 1982).
Figure 5 Visible lightānear-infrared absorption spectra for two pairs of polished tourmaline slabs from Mozambique, before and after heating. (TOP) The dramatic change in color from violet to blue-green with heating results from the reduction of Mn3+. (BOTTOM) Little change in color is observed when heating the yellowish green tourmaline due to strong Mn2Ā±Ti4+ absorption. FIGURE FROM LAURS ET AL. (2008), MODIFIED BY B. DUTROW; INSET PHOTOS BY C. D. MENGASON
In the absence of compositional data for tourmaline, gem miners and dealers use a series of color-based trade names that are common in the marketplace (TABLE 1). The classic varietal names are rubellite (rose, dark pink, to red), verdelite (yellow-green to green), indicolite (blue-green to blue), and achroite (colorless) (Zang and da Fonseca-Zang 2002). However, these trade names do not universally correlate with tourmaline species names. Tourmaline crystals with a given color can develop in several species, and some individual species can develop many colors. For example, elbaite and ļ¬ uor-liddicoatite, which represent most of the tourmaline gemstones, can display a nearly complete color spectrum (see TABLE 1). Recently, additional color-based varietal names have come into popular use, such as canary tourmaline (yellow, Mn-rich elbaite from Zambia; Simmons et al. 2011) and chrome tourmaline (a vivid green tourmaline from Tanzania)āa perplexing name for a dravite-to-uvite tourmaline with signiļ¬ cant vanadium content (Bank and Henn 1988). The intense blue-green tourmalines, termed ParaĆba-type, are of special interest as gemstones (FIG. 4). ParaĆba-Type ā
Copper-bearing tourmaline, in vivid blue-to-green and purple hues, is one of the most desirable colored gemstones in the world (FIG. 4). Following its discovery in the late 1980s in the ParaĆba State of Brazil (e.g. Fritsch et al. 1990; Beurlen et al. 2011 and references therein), it became popular for its highly saturated āneonā colors, and prices escalated rapidly. Recent prices have reached ~US$25,000/ carat for exceptionally clean, intensely colored Brazilian stones. In the 1990s additional deposits were found in ParaĆba State and in the neighboring Rio Grande do Norte State (Shigley et al. 2001), and more were discovered later in Nigeria (Milisenda and Henn 2001) and in the Alto Ligonha pegmatite district of Mozambique (Laurs et al. 2008 and references therein). Although the blue-to-greento-purple colors of the Mozambique material are typically less saturated than those of the Brazilian stones, the lower price and greater availability have further enhanced this tourmalineās popularity. Demand for gem laboratories to differentiate stones by locality has stimulated research into their provenance using the analysis of trace elements and isotopes (e.g. Abduriyim et al. 2006; Shabaga et al. 2010; Marschall and Jiang 2011 this issue).
Figure 6 Ultravioletāvisible lightānear-infrared absorption spectra for various colors of unheated Cu-bearing tourmaline from Mozambique. Two distinctive broad bands centered at ~700 and ~900 nm (the latter not shown in the spectra) are caused by Cu2+; some exhibit absorption between ~500 and ~550 nm due to Mn3+. Weights of the inset stones are: (a) 12.90 ct, (b) 3.70 ct, (c) 1.46 ct, (d) 2.24 ct. FIGURE FROM LAURS ET AL. (2008), MODIFIED BY B. DUTROW, INSET PHOTOS BY ROBERT WELDON
The coloration of ParaĆba-type tourmaline is controlled mainly by a combination of the cationic concentrations and oxidation states of Cu, Mn, Fe, and Ti (Fritsch et al. 1990; Rossman et al. 1991; Laurs et al. 2008). In the absence of signiļ¬ cant amounts of Fe and Ti, and when manganese occurs as Mn2+, the tourmalines show an intense āneonā blue color due to strong Cu2+ absorptions centered at ~700 and 900 nm (FIGS. 5, 6). Heat treatment of Cu- and Mn-bearing tourmaline reduces Mn3+, which causes violetpink coloration, to Mn2+, which is a less intense chromophore in tourmaline (FIG. 5). Removal of the Mn3+ absorption at ~520 nm creates a transmission window from ~400 to 580 nm that yields the āneonā blue color (FIG. 4); heat treatment of a similar stone containing signiļ¬ cant Ti and Fe produces a green coloration (e.g. Laurs et al. 2008). ParaĆba-type tourmalines are typically elbaitic species, but may also be ļ¬ uor-liddicoatite (Karampelas and Klemm 2010).
Gamma irradiation and heat treatment are techniques used to modify the color of many gem materials to make them more marketable (e.g. Nassau 1996). Pale-colored tourmaline is generally irradiated to add color; most commonly, near-colorless stones are transformed into vivid pink and red ones. Heat treatment is generally applied to dark tourmaline, with the heating conditions (peak temperature, time of heating and cooling, etc.) optimized on a case-bycase basis to achieve the desired color saturation and tone. Most commonly, dark blue or green material is heated to obtain lighter blue green or yellow green colors. Heat treatment of ParaĆba-type tourmaline reduces the inļ¬ uence of the Mn3+ chromophore to create or enhance the intensity of the āneonā blue color (see above). The treatment temperature can range from 120 Ā°C to over 700 Ā°C, and a complete heating run can be less than 2 hours to over 48 hours. Details of the mechanisms involved in the color modiļ¬ cations in tourmaline during heat treatment are reported in CastaƱeda et al. (2006).
Figure 7 A slice of a large ļ¬ uor-liddicoatite crystal (7 cm in diameter, viewed in plane-polarized light) from Anjanabonoina, Madagascar; the inset image shows the crystal cut into a series of slices perpendicular to the c axis. The zoning patterns, which likely are nonequilibrium features, reveal a complex growth history characterized by dramatically changing chemical environments. These chemical changes, combined with crystallographic effects, produced the color pattern observed. NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM OF MILAN SPECIMEN; PHOTO BY ROBERTO APPIANI
The synthesis of gemstones has an economic incentive. Most of the important gem minerals and their varietals [including sapphire (corundum), ruby (corundum), emerald (beryl), aquamarine (beryl), and diamond] have been successfully grown in laboratories as relatively large gem crystals using various techniques. However, gem tourmaline, common and widespread in pegmatites as large crystals, has not yet been synthesized (London 2011).
Figure 8 Comparison of the complex zoning patterns in ļ¬ uorliddicoatite crystals from Anjanabonoina and Tsarafara, Madagascar. Backlighting reveals the color zoning in the 8 cm long, gem-quality Tsarafara tourmaline (RIGHT). The lines join corresponding stages of crystal growth. From the bottom of the crystals to their termination, the following growth zones can be distinguished and interpreted in terms of chemical composition: P ā primitive root, EI ā ļ¬ rst evolved growth, CI ā ļ¬ rst contaminated growth, EII ā second evolved growth, CII ā second contaminated growth, EIII ā third evolved growth. GEM CRYSTAL FROM THE GERHARD WAGNER COLLECTION; PHOTO BY ROBERTO APPIANI
Tourmaline crystals are sensitive to physicochemical changes in their growth environment and are effective recorders of this information (van Hinsberg et al. 2011 this issue). Such crystals are typically zonedāsome with extraordinary color zoning with dramatically variable colors (FIGS. 7, 8). In gem-bearing pegmatites, the ārootsā (the most primitive portions) of the tourmaline crystals are typically black and are generally schorl or foitite (FIG. 8). The black root is commonly overgrown by gem tourmaline that may show compositional variations involving several changes in chromophore elements (FIGS. 2, 7, 8). Such chemical variations can result in simple zoning, typically from nearly black FeāMg-rich elbaite to green-to-blue Fe-bearing elbaite to pink Mn-rich or Mn-poor elbaite to pale pink rossmanite. In many cases, a āreverseā geochemical trend is shown at the latest stages by a green overgrowth, producing āwatermelonā color zonation (pink core, colorless-to-white midsection, and green rim) in sections cut perpendicular to the c axis.
Complexly zoned crystals can be spectacular. They are typically characterized by oscillatory and sector color zones that reļ¬ ect interactions between the surface energies of distinct faces and the dynamic local chemical environment, such that different chromophoric cations are incorporated into chemical zones within the tourmaline (FIG. 7; e.g. Lussier and Hawthorne 2011). The large, beautifully color-zoned crystals of ļ¬ uor-liddicoatite from Madagascar are particularly illustrative of this style of zoning (FIGS. 7, 8; Dirlam et al. 2002). Although they show a relatively drab, dark color on the outside (FIG. 7, INSET), when they are cut perpendicular to the c axis a myriad of geometric patterns appear, including triangular zones and three-rayed āstarsā surrounded by oscillating color zones (FIG. 7; e.g. Dirlam et al. 2002; Rustemeyer 2003). Chemical sector zoning is shown by the central triangle (representing the pedion face) and the surrounding triangular zones and the star (representing pyramidal faces). In some rare cases, relatively thin and elongated gem crystals are sufļ¬ ciently transparent to display this dramatic color variation (when backlit) without being sliced (FIG. 8).
Gem tourmalines have been found in a variety of locations throughout the world (FIG. 9). One of the most notable tourmaline discoveries took place in April 1978 at the Jonas mine, Conselheiro Pena, Minas Gerais, Brazil (SOUTH AMERICAN LOCALITY 1 IN FIG. 9; Cornejo and Bartorelli 2010). These intense deep red crystals include the Rocket (a prism 107 cm tall; see FIG. 4 in Hawthorne and Dirlam 2011) and the Tarugo (a cluster 82 cm long and weighing 74 kg, corresponding to 375,000 ct). Giant prismatic crystals, up to ~1 m in length and 35 cm in diameter, have been found in Madagascar, primarily as polychrome crystals that provide colorful sliced material.
Figure 9 Major world gem tourmalineāproducing localities. ā¢ Historic gem production; ā¼ limited gem production; ā¼ signiļ¬ cant gem production; 
exceptional gem production. FROM SHIGLEY ET AL. (2010) AND REFERENCES THEREIN
Gem tourmalines are found in a number of geologic settings. Most gem tourmalines form in granitic pegmatites where they are concentrated in miarolitic cavities. Such miarolitic pegmatites are typically emplaced in the continental crust at moderate to shallow depth, in a pressure range of 1ā3 kilobars (0.1ā0.3 MPa). The ages of these gem tourmalineābearing pegmatites are variable. Many of the largest such pegmatitic ļ¬elds, including those in Brazil, Namibia, Mozambique, and Madagascar, are about 500ā550 million years old and formed during the latest stages of the tectonometamorphic Pan-African event involving the Gondwana supercontinent. However, some gem tourmalineābearing pegmatites formed more recently. The famous tourmaline-bearing pegmatites of southern California, USA, formed about 100 million years ago (Snee and Foord 1991), and those on Elba Island, Italy, formed about 6.2 million years ago (Dini et al. 2002). Metamorphic rocks can host unusual deposits of gem-quality tourmaline, such as the well-known āchromeā tourmaline from Tanzania (Simonet 2006). Because they are highly resistant to mechanical and chemical weathering (van Hinsberg et al. 2011), gem tourmalines can accumulate in eluvial and alluvial deposits, such as those found in Madagascar (Dirlam et al. 2002).
Inclusions in tourmaline reļ¬ect the environment of its formation and, in rare cases, provide a ļ¬ ngerprint for speciļ¬ c deposits (Koivula 1994 and references therein). For example, native copper inclusions are indicative of gemstones from ParaĆba, Brazil (Fritsch et al. 1990). Other mineral inclusions in tourmaline include albite, muscovite, lepidolite, ļ¬uorapatite, monazite, pyrite, pyrochlore-group minerals, quartz, zircon, and, more rarely, minerals such as hydroxylherderite, manganotantalite, and topaz (Koivula 1994). Most of these mineral inclusions are consistent with a pegmatitic paragenesis. However, the inclusions found in tourmaline are more commonly in the form of trapped ļ¬ uids. These ļ¬uid inclusions manifest themselves as negative crystals (ļ¬ uid-ļ¬ lled voids shaped like the host crystal), ļ¬ne randomly arranged capillary-like tubes, partially healed fractures, and sometimes growth tubes. Fluid inclusions in tourmaline, generally single-phase gas or twophase aqueous liquid-plus-gas inclusions, represent ļ¬uid trapped during some stage(s) of tourmaline development, and they can be used to establish the pressureātemperatureāļ¬ uid evolution of the system (e.g. van Hinsberg et al. 2011).
In addition to its scientiļ¬ c value as a recorder of the geologic environments during its formation, tourmaline is a fascinating and beautiful gemstone known for its full spectrum of colors. Its attractive and complex color zoning and its occurrence as sharp prismatic crystals make it highly sought-after by mineral connoisseurs and gem aļ¬ cionados. Particularly notable are large (up to 1 m long) crystals of elbaite, intricately zoned crystals of liddicoatitic tourmaline, and vivid blue-to-green ParaĆba-type elbaite. Tourmalineās remarkable variety of colors and its availability as large, gem-quality crystals are directly related to its most common mode of formation, within miarolitic cavities in moderately to highly differentiated granitic pegmatites. The most important commercial depositsāall pegmatiticāare located in Brazil, Mozambique, Nigeria, and Afghanistan. Demand for this attractive gemstone will continue to drive mining and will likely result in additional discoveries that will yield magniļ¬ cent crystals and deepen our knowledge of the dynamic Earth processes leading to its formation.
Barb Dutrow and Darrell Henry provided outstanding editorial assistance and help with ļ¬ gures 5 and 6, for which we are grateful. We also thank the reviewers, George Harlow, Emmanuel Fritsch, and an anonymous reviewer, and Judith Colbert at the Richard T. Liddicoat Gemological Library and Information Center at the Gemological Institute of America (GIA) for supplying images and historical information. Claudio Pagliarin at the Museo Civico di Storia Naturale of Milan drafted the crystal drawings in Figure 8.
Abduriyim A, Kitawaki H, Furuya M, Schwarz D (2006) āParaĆbaā-type copper-bearing tourmaline from Brazil, Nigeria, and Mozambique: Chemical ļ¬ ngerprinting by LA-ICP-MS. Gems & Gemology 42: 4-21
Anderson BW (1980) Gem Testing, Ninth edition. Butterworth & Co. Ltd, London Bank H, Henn U (1988) Colour-changing chromiferous tourmalines from East Africa. Journal of Gemmology 21: 102-103
Beurlen H, de Moura OJM, Soares DR, Da Silva MRR, Rhede D (2011) Geochemical and geological controls on the genesis of gem-quality āParaĆba tourmalineā in granitic pegmatites from northeastern Brazil. Canadian Mineralogist 49: 277-300
CastaƱeda C, Eeckhout SG, da Costa GM, Botelho NF, De Grave E (2006) Effect of heat treatment on tourmaline from Brazil. Physics and Chemistry of Minerals 33: 207-216
Cornejo C, Bartorelli A (2010) Minerals and Precious Stones of Brazil. Solaris Cultural Publications, Sao Paulo, 704 pp
Dini A, Innocenti F, Rocchi S, Tonarini S, Westerman DS (2002) The magmatic evolution of the late Miocene laccolithā plutonādyke granitic complex of Elba Island, Italy. Geological Magazine 139: 257-279
Dirlam DM, Laurs BM, Pezzotta F, Simmons WB (2002) Liddicoatite tourmaline from Anjanabonoina, Madagascar. Gems & Gemology 38: 28-53
Fisher J (2008) Gem pegmatites, southern California. In: Staebler GA, Wilson WW (eds) American Mineral Treasures. Lithographie LLC, East Hampton, Connecticut, pp 186-195
Fritsch E, Shigley JE, Rossman GR, Mercer ME, Muhlmeister SM, Moon M (1990) Gem-quality cuprian-elbaite tourmalines from SĆ£o JosĆ© da Batalha, ParaĆba, Brazil. Gems & Gemology 26: 189-205
Glas M (2002) The Kremlinās carbuncle. extraLapis English 3: 62-63
Graziani G, GĆ¼belin E, Lucchesi S (1982) Tourmaline chatoyancy. Journal of Gemmology 18: 181-193
Hawthorne FC, Dirlam DM (2011) Tourmaline the indicator mineral: From atomic arrangement to Viking navigation. Elements 7: 307-312
Henry DJ, NovƔk M, Hawthorne FC, Ertl A, Dutrow BL, Uher P, Pezzotta F (2011) Nomenclature of the tourmaline-supergroup minerals. American Mineralogist 96: 895-913
HyrŔl J, Neumanova P (1999) Eine neue Gemmologische Untersuchung der Sankt Wenzelskrone in Prag. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft 48: 29-36
Karampelas S, Klemm L (2010) Gem News International: āNeonā blue-to-green Cu- and Mn-bearing liddicoatite tourmaline. Gems & Gemology 46: 323-325
King VT (2002) Tourmaline ā History in brief. extraLapis English 3: 4-8 Koivula JI (1994) The inside story. Lapidary Journal 47: 56-59
Laurs BM, Zwaan JC, Breeding CM, Simmons WB, Beaton D, Rijsdijk KF, Beļ¬ R, Falster AU (2008) Copperbearing (ParaĆba-type) tourmaline from Mozambique. Gems & Gemology 44: 4-30
London D (2011) Experimental synthesis and stability of tourmaline: a historical overview. Canadian Mineralogist 49: 117-136
Lussier AJ, Hawthorne FC (2011) Oscillatory zoned liddicoatite from Anjanabonoina, central Madagascar. II. Compositional variation and mechanisms of substitution. Canadian Mineralogist 49: 89-104
Marschall HR, Jiang SY (2011) Tourmaline isotopes: No element left behind. Elements 7: 313-319
Milisenda CC, Henn U (2001) Kupferhaltige Turmaline aus Nigeria. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft 50: 217-223
Nassau K (1996) Gemstone Enhancement: History, Science and State of the Art, 2nd edition. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, pp 194-197
Reinitz IM, Rossman GR (1988) Role of natural radiation in tourmaline coloration. American Mineralogist 73: 822-825
Rossman GR, Fritsch E, Shigley JE (1991) Origin of color in cuprian elbaite from SĆ£o JosĆ© de Batalha, ParaĆba, Brazil. American Mineralogist 76: 1479-1484
Rustemeyer P (2003) Faszination Turmalin. Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, HeidelbergāBerlin, 309 pp
Shabaga BM, Fayek M, Hawthorne FC (2010) Boron and lithium isotopic compositions as provenance indicators of Cu-bearing tourmalines. Mineralogical Magazine 74: 241-255
Shigley JE, Cook BC, Laurs BM, Bernardes MO (2001) An update on āParaĆbaā tourmaline from Brazil. Gems & Gemology 37: 260-276
Shigley JE, Laurs BM, Janse AJA, Elen S, Dirlam DM (2010) Gem localities of the 2000s. Gems & Gemology 46: 188-216
Simmons WB, Falster AU, Laurs BM (2011) A survey of Mn-rich yellow tourmaline from worldwide localities and implications for the petrogenesis of granitic pegmatites. Canadian Mineralogist 49: 301-319
Simonet C (2006) Les tourmalines magnĆ©siennes dāAfrique de lāEst. Revue de Gemmologie 157: 4-7
Snee LW, Foord EE (1991) 40Ar/39Ar thermochronology of granitic pegmatites and host rocks, San Diego County, California. Geological Society of America, Abstracts with Programs 23: 189
van Hinsberg VJ, Henry DJ, Dutrow BL (2011) Tourmaline as a petrologic forensic mineral: A unique recorder of its geologic past. Elements 7: 327-332
Zang J, da Fonseca-Zang W (2002) Is there really black tourmaline? extraLapis English 3: 30-33
This article was lifted out of ELEMENTS, International journal of mineralogy, geochemistry and petrology Oct, 2011ā¦google the DOI number of the publication to get itā¦ I agree with royjohn that Copper is essential. The original Paraiba deposit was mined out long agoā¦ Paraiba tourmaline originating from Paraiba is expensive and rare because of thatā¦ same goes for Pala tourmalines from the southern Sierra Nevada. That being said, however, Nigerian Paraiba type tourmalines have a similar compositionā¦ the nigerian pegmatites overlapped the Paraiba pegmatites when South American was joined to Africa in the supercontinent Pangea which was rifted apart by the opening of the Atlantic Ocean during the Tertiary.
Tourmalines have multiple complicated mechanisms for color centers. Crystal field splitting, charge transfer, holes, as well as trace elements and transition metals. The boron is present in all tourmalines. Their cations distort the cyclosilicate structure. So far as my own brief review of the literature is concerned, this is still an active area of research. Itās too simplistic to say that manganese is essential and necessary for Paraiba color activation. Copper is essential for color.
Please google and open the DOI number of the article from ELEMENTSā¦ International Journal of Mineralogy, Geochemistry, Petrology Oct. 2011ā¦
To my knowledge and very limited review of the literature, the color centers in tourmalines are still an area of researchā¦ also see my response to royjohn with whom I agree.
Tourmalines are very complicated mineralogicallyā¦color centers have multiple mechanisms with boron causing strain and distortion in the crystal structureā¦ that permits charge transfer, hole formation, dislocations, crystal field splitting and other color forming mechanisms to operate. That being said, Paraiba tourmalines were mined out long agoā¦ hence the high costā¦ I thought they were too expensive when they first came on the market at $100/ctā¦I kick myself for not buying !!!..but the Nigerian tourmalines do come from the same geological provenance as brazilianā¦ the pegmatites overlapped in Pangea before the Atlantic Ocean broke south america off of africaā¦ Cu+2 is essential. Mn+3 will not by itself color neon blueā¦ nor do I think it is necessary for color activation in the presence of Cu ā¦ I should add that I could very well be wrongā¦ that paper was written over ten years ago. More research must have been done in the interval. If thereās a professional geochemist out there, let he/she speak out. I do want to know more!..
Hi DevlynL,
I had a message srating you were bring intourmalines from different locations in Brazil. Im not sure if it was a question to me or a broadcast. Anyway, i did read it but couldnt find the exact one to reply to.
Regards,
Ken
Thatās good fdminasba but im not sure why you sent me this message. Iāve dealt with all types of stones selling by one or two or three (not lots) to stores in the diamond district of NYC.
Iām actually trying to sell my existing inventory of all I have for medical reasons plus Iāve moved away from the NYC area.
Regards,
Ken
Why is Mn+3 necessary for Cu+2 color activation?.. is it a charge/valence transfer? Cu+1 is not present.
for general posting not specifically for anyone. I agree with you that Paraiba is a locale typeā¦ all mined out nowā¦ new non Paraiba stones even of same color and chemistry from Africa should be called paraiba typeā¦
I agree with steven as well. Paraiba Tourmaline can be called no matter of the origin. But the rarity and price difference can still matter for the ones from brazil as they are truely rare.
But NOT ALL Copper bearing tourmaline should be called Paraiba Tourmaline. GIA has clear guidelines in the color that can be called Paraiba. They mention it in the certificate āmay not be calledā for some gemstones that we certify.
Commonly found on ebay or other platforms are purple, pale white stones classified as paraiba which might not be accurate.
These can be classified as āCuprian Tourmalineā
Hope this helps.
thanksā¦ yes, copper bearing tourmaline. thank you!
Iāve heard many people call a stone Paraiba Tourmaline but they specify it does not contain copper. So although its looks like the uniqueness of a Paraiba tourmaline they are honest about not bearing copper. True ones at least should have copper in them. Of course, this is from the people i deal with. These people also tell you which country the stone came from no matter what type and sometines even know the mine.
